# Documentation for the matrix module¶

This module matrix defines the matrix.Matrix class, as asked for the project.

Below is included a documentation (automatically generated from the docstrings present in the source file).

Complete solution for the CS101 Programming Project about matrices.

This file defines a class Matrix, designed to be as complete as possible. Do not worry, I was not asking you to do as much.

## Examples¶

Importing the module:

>>> from matrix import *
>>> from matrix import Matrix as M  # shortcut


Defining a matrix by giving its list of rows:

>>> A = M([[1, 0], [0, 1]])
>>> A == eye(A.n)
True
>>> B = 2*(A**2) + 4*A + eye(A.n)
>>> B
[[7, 0], [0, 7]]
>>> B == 7 * eye(A.n)
True


Indexing and slicing:

>>> A[1,:] = 2; A
[[1, 0], [2, 2]]
>>> A[0, 0] = -5; A
[[-5, 0], [2, 2]]


>>> C = eye(2); C
[[1, 0], [0, 1]]
>>> C + (3 * C) - C
[[3, 0], [0, 3]]
>>> (4 * C) ** 2
[[16, 0], [0, 16]]


Many more examples are given below:

## Things that could still be worked on for this solution¶

Todo

Implement the QR, SVD and other matrix decompositions.

Todo

Try to add a randomized matrix decomposition (or any less-original matrix decomposition method)? Note: I worked on this aspect, for a project in January 2016 for my M.Sc. : https://bitbucket.org/lbesson/mva15-project-parcimonie-compressed-sensing/.

Todo

Implement a nice wrapper for a linear equations solver (with LU).

Todo

More doctests for PLUdecomposition(), and implement the non-permuted LU decomposition?

Todo

Add more doctests and examples for Gauss, Gauss-Jordan, Gram-Schmidt (gauss(), gauss_jordan(), gram_schmidt())?

Note

Interactive examples?

See the other file tests.py for many examples.

I also wrote a complete solution for the other project I was in charge of, about numerical algorithms to compute integrals.

class matrix.Decimal[source]

Extended decimal.Decimal class to improve the str and repr methods.

If there is not digit after the comma, print it as an integer.

__weakref__

list of weak references to the object (if defined)

class matrix.Fraction[source]

Extended fractions.Fraction class to improve the str and repr methods.

If the denominator is 1, print it as an integer.

__weakref__

list of weak references to the object (if defined)

class matrix.Matrix(listrows)[source]

A class to represent matrices of size (n, m).

M = Matrix(listrows) will have three attributes:

• M.listrows list of rows vectors (as list),
• M.n or M.rows number of rows,
• M. or M.cols number of columns (ie. length of the rows).

All the required special methods are implemented, so Matrix objects can be used as numbers, with a very natural syntax.

Warning

All the rows should have the same size.

__init__(listrows)[source]

Create a Matrix object from the list of row vectors M.

>>> A = Matrix([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]])
>>> A.listrows
[[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]]

listrows = None

self.listrows is the list of rows for self

n

Getter for the read-only attribute A.n (number of rows).

>>> A = Matrix([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]])
>>> A.n
2
>>> A.rows == A.n
True

rows

Getter for the read-only attribute A.n (number of rows).

>>> A = Matrix([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]])
>>> A.n
2
>>> A.rows == A.n
True

m

Getter for the read-only attribute A.m (size of the rows, ie. number of columns).

>>> A = Matrix([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]])
>>> A.m
3
>>> A.cols == A.m
True

cols

Getter for the read-only attribute A.m (size of the rows, ie. number of columns).

>>> A = Matrix([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]])
>>> A.m
3
>>> A.cols == A.m
True

__getitem__(ij)[source]

A[i, j] <-> A.listrows[i][j] reads the (i, j) element of the matrix A.

• Experimental support of slices: A[a:b:k, j], or A[i, c:d:l] or A[a:b:k, c:d:l].
• Default values for a and c is a start point of 0, b and d is a end point of maximum size, and k and l is a step of 1.
>>> A = Matrix([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]])
>>> A[0, 0]
1
>>> A[0, :]
[[1, 2, 3]]
>>> A[-1, :]
[[4, 5, 6]]
>>> A[:, 0]
[[1], [4]]
>>> A[1:, 1:]
[[5, 6]]
>>> A[:, ::2]
[[1, 3], [4, 6]]

__setitem__(ij, value)[source]

A[i, j] = value: will update the (i, j) element of the matrix A.

• Support for slice arguments: A[a:b:k, j] = sub_row, or A[i, c:d:l] = sub_column or A[a:b:k, c:d:l] = submatrix.
• Default values for a and c is a start point of 0, b and d is a end point of maximum size, and k and l is a step of 1.
>>> A = Matrix([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]])
>>> A[0, 0] = 4; A
[[4, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]]
>>> A[:, 0]
[[4], [4]]
>>> A[-1, :] = 9; A
[[4, 2, 3], [9, 9, 9]]
>>> A[1, 1] = 3; A
[[4, 2, 3], [9, 3, 9]]
>>> A[0, :] = [3, 2, 1]; A
[[3, 2, 1], [9, 3, 9]]
>>> A[1:, 1:] = -1; A
[[3, 2, 1], [9, -1, -1]]
>>> A[1:, 1:] *= -8; A
[[3, 2, 1], [9, 8, 8]]

row(i)[source]

A.row(i) <-> extracts the i-th row of A, as a new matrix.

Warning

Modifying A.row(i) does NOT modify the matrix A.

>>> A = Matrix([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]])
>>> A.row(0)
[[1, 2, 3]]
>>> A.row(1)
[[4, 5, 6]]
>>> r = A.row(0); r *= 3
>>> A  # it has not been modified!
[[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]]

col(j)[source]

A.col(j) <-> extracts the j-th column of A, as a new matrix.

Warning

Modifying A.col(j) does NOT modify the matrix A.

>>> A = Matrix([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]])
>>> A.col(0)
[[1], [4]]
>>> A.col(2)
[[3], [6]]
>>> c = A.col(1); c *= 6
>>> A  # it has not been modified!
[[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]]

copy()[source]

A.copy() <-> a shallow copy of the matrix A (ie. a new and fresh matrix with same values).

>>> A = Matrix([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]])
>>> B = A.copy()
>>> A[0, 0] = -10; A
[[-10, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]]
>>> B  # It has not been modified!
[[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]]

__len__()[source]

len(A) returns A.n * A.m, the number of values in the matrix.

>>> A = Matrix([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]])
>>> len(A)
6
>>> len(A) == A.n * A.m
True

shape

A.shape is (A.n, A.m) (similar to the shape attribute of NumPy arrays).

>>> A = Matrix([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]])
>>> A.shape
(2, 3)

transpose()[source]

A.transpose() is the transposition of the matrix A.

• Returns a new matrix!
• Definition: if B = A.transpose(), then B[i, j] is A[j, i].
>>> A = Matrix([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]])
>>> A.transpose()
[[1, 4], [2, 5], [3, 6]]
>>> A.transpose().transpose() == A
True

T

A.T <-> A.transpose() is the transposition of the matrix A, useful shortcut as in NumPy.

>>> B = Matrix([[1, 4], [2, 5], [3, 6]])
>>> B.T
[[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]]
>>> B == B.T.T
True

__str__()[source]

str(A) <-> A.__str__() converts the matrix A to a string (showing the list of rows vectors).

>>> B = Matrix([[1, 4], [2, 5], [3, 6]])
>>> str(B)
'[[1, 4], [2, 5], [3, 6]]'

__repr__()[source]

repr(A) <-> A.__repr__() converts the matrix A to a string (showing the list of rows vectors).

>>> B = Matrix([[1, 4], [2, 5], [3, 6]])
>>> repr(B)
'[[1, 4], [2, 5], [3, 6]]'

__eq__(B)[source]

A == B <-> A.__eq__(B) compares the matrix A with B.

• Time complexity is $$\mathcal{O}(n m)$$ for matrices of size (n, m).
>>> B = Matrix([[1, 4], [2, 5], [3, 6]])
>>> B == B
True
>>> B + B + B == 3*B == B + 2*B == 2*B + B
True
>>> B - B + B == 1*B == -B + 2*B == 2*B - B == 2*B + (-B)
True
>>> B != B
False

almosteq(B, epsilon=1e-10)[source]

A.almosteq(B) compares the matrix A with B, numerically with an error threshold of epsilon.

• Default epsilon is $$10^{-10}$$.
• Time complexity is $$\mathcal{O}(n m)$$ for matrices of size (n, m).
>>> B = Matrix([[1, 4], [2, 5], [3, 6]])
>>> C = B.copy(); C[0,0] += 4*1e-6
>>> B == C
False
>>> B.almosteq(C)
False
>>> B.almosteq(C, epsilon=1e-4)
True
>>> B.almosteq(C, epsilon=1e-5)
True
>>> B.almosteq(C, epsilon=1e-6)
False

__lt__(B)[source]

A < B <-> $$A_{i,j} < B_{i,j} \forall i,j$$ compares the matrix A with B.

• Time complexity is $$\mathcal{O}(n m)$$ for matrices of size (n, m).
• Time complexity is $$\mathcal{O}(n m)$$ for matrices of size (n, m).
• A > B, A <= B, A >= B are all computed automatically with __eq__() and __lt__().
>>> B = Matrix([[1, 4], [2, 5], [3, 6]])
>>> B < B
False
>>> B < B + 4
True
>>> B > B
False
>>> B > B - 12
True

__add__(B)[source]

A + B <-> A.__add__(B) computes the sum of the matrix A and B.

• Returns a new matrix!
• Time and memory complexity is $$\mathcal{O}(n m)$$ for matrices of size (n, m).
• If B is a number, the sum is done coefficient wise.
>>> A = Matrix([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]])
>>> A + A
[[2, 4, 6], [8, 10, 12]]
>>> B = ones(A.n, A.m); B
[[1, 1, 1], [1, 1, 1]]
>>> A + B
[[2, 3, 4], [5, 6, 7]]
>>> B + A
[[2, 3, 4], [5, 6, 7]]
>>> B + B + B + B + B + B + B
[[7, 7, 7], [7, 7, 7]]
>>> B + 4  # Coefficient wise!
[[5, 5, 5], [5, 5, 5]]
>>> B + (-2)  # Coefficient wise!
[[-1, -1, -1], [-1, -1, -1]]
>>> B + (-1.0)  # Coefficient wise!
[[0.0, 0.0, 0.0], [0.0, 0.0, 0.0]]

__radd__(B)[source]

B + A <-> A.__radd__(B) computes the sum of B and the matrix A.

• Returns a new matrix!
• Time and memory complexity is $$\mathcal{O}(n m)$$ for matrices of size (n, m).
• If B is a number, the sum is done coefficient wise.
>>> A = Matrix([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]])
>>> 1 + A
[[2, 3, 4], [5, 6, 7]]
>>> B = ones(A.n, A.m)
>>> 4 + B  # Coefficient wise!
[[5, 5, 5], [5, 5, 5]]
>>> (-2) + B  # Coefficient wise!
[[-1, -1, -1], [-1, -1, -1]]
>>> (-1.0) + B  # Coefficient wise!
[[0.0, 0.0, 0.0], [0.0, 0.0, 0.0]]

__sub__(B)[source]

A - B <-> A.__sub__(B) computes the difference of the matrix A and B.

• Returns a new matrix!
• Time and memory complexity is $$\mathcal{O}(n m)$$ for matrices of size (n, m).
• If B is a number, the sum is done coefficient wise.
>>> A = Matrix([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]])
>>> B = ones(A.n, A.m)
>>> A - B
[[0, 1, 2], [3, 4, 5]]
>>> B - A
[[0, -1, -2], [-3, -4, -5]]
>>> A - 1  # Coefficient wise!
[[0, 1, 2], [3, 4, 5]]
>>> B - 2  # Coefficient wise!
[[-1, -1, -1], [-1, -1, -1]]
>>> (A - 3.14).round()  # Coefficient wise!
[[-2.14, -1.14, -0.14], [0.86, 1.86, 2.86]]

__neg__()[source]

-A <-> A.__neg__() computes the opposite of the matrix A.

• Returns a new matrix!
• Time and memory complexity is $$\mathcal{O}(n m)$$ for a matrix of size (n, m).
>>> A = Matrix([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]])
>>> -A
[[-1, -2, -3], [-4, -5, -6]]
>>> A - A == A + (-A)
True
>>> -(-A)  == A
True
>>> -------A == -A  # Crazy syntax!
True
>>> s = '-------'
>>> len(s) % 2 == 1  # We check that we had an od number of minus symbol
True

__pos__()[source]

+ <-> A.__pos__() computes the positive of the matrix A.

• Returns a new matrix!
• Useless?
• Time and memory complexity is $$\mathcal{O}(n m)$$ for a matrix of size (n, m).
>>> A = Matrix([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]])
>>> +A == A
True
>>> +-+-+-+-+++----+-+-+----++++A == A  # Crazy syntax, again!
True
>>> s = '+-+-+-+-+++----+-+-+----++++'
>>> s.count('-') % 2 == 0  # We check that we had an even number of minus symbol
True

__rsub__(B)[source]

B - A <-> A.__rsub__(B) computes the difference of B and the matrix A.

• Returns a new matrix!
• Time and memory complexity is $$\mathcal{O}(n m)$$ for matrices of size (n, m).
• If B is a number, the sum is done coefficient wise.
• If B is a Matrix object, B - A will in fact be B.__sub__(A) and not A.__rsub__(B).
>>> A = Matrix([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]])
>>> 1 - A  # Coefficient wise!
[[0, -1, -2], [-3, -4, -5]]
>>> B = ones(A.n, A.m)
>>> (-1) - B  # Coefficient wise!
[[-2, -2, -2], [-2, -2, -2]]
>>> ((-1) - B) == -(1 + B) == -(B + B)
True

__mul__(B)[source]

A * B <-> A.__mul__(B) computes the product of the matrix A and B.

• Returns a new matrix!
• Time and memory complexity is $$\mathcal{O}(n m p)$$ for a matrix A of size (n, m) and B of size (m, p).
• If B is a number, the product is done coefficient wise.

Warning

Matrix product is not commutative!

>>> A = Matrix([[1, 2], [3, 4]])
>>> B = eye(A.n); B
[[1, 0], [0, 1]]
>>> A * B == B * A == A
True
>>> A * A
[[7, 10], [15, 22]]
>>> A * (A * A) == (A * A) * A
True
>>> A * 1 == A  # Coefficient wise!
True
>>> A * 12.011993  # Coefficient wise!
[[12.011993, 24.023986], [36.035979, 48.047972]]

__rmul__(B)[source]

B * A <-> A.__rmul__(B) computes the product of B and the matrix A.

• Returns a new matrix!
• Time and memory complexity is $$\mathcal{O}(n m p)$$ for a matrix A of size (n, m) and B of size (m, p).
• If B is a number, the product is done coefficient wise.
• If B is a Matrix object, B * A will in fact be B.__mul__(A) and not A.__rmul__(B).

Warning

Matrix product is not commutative!

>>> A = Matrix([[1, 2], [3, 4]])
>>> 1 * A == A  # Coefficient wise!
True
>>> 12.011993 * A  # Coefficient wise!
[[12.011993, 24.023986], [36.035979, 48.047972]]

multiply_elementwise(B)[source]

A.multiply_elementwise(B) computes the product of the matrix A and B, element-wise (it is called a Hadamard product).

• Returns a new matrix!
• Time and memory complexity is $$\mathcal{O}(n m p)$$ for a matrix A of size (n, m) and B of size (m, p).
>>> A = Matrix([[1, 2], [3, 4]])
>>> B = eye(A.n)
>>> A.multiply_elementwise(B)
[[1, 0], [0, 4]]
>>> A.multiply_elementwise(A)  # A .^ 2 in Matlab?
[[1, 4], [9, 16]]

__div__(B)[source]

A / B <-> A * (B ** (-1)) computes the division of the matrix A by B.

• Returns a new matrix!
• Performs true division!
• Time and memory complexity is $$\mathcal{O}(n m p \max(m, p)^2)$$ for a matrix A of size (n, m) and B of size (m, p).
• If B is a number, the division is done coefficient wise.
>>> A = Matrix([[1, 2], [3, 4]])
>>> B = eye(A.n)
>>> B.almosteq(A / A)
True
>>> C = B.map(float)
>>> A / C == A * C == A
True
>>> A / B == A * B == A
True
>>> A / 2  # Coefficient wise!
[[0.5, 1.0], [1.5, 2.0]]
>>> A / 2.0  # Coefficient wise!
[[0.5, 1.0], [1.5, 2.0]]

__truediv__(B)

A / B <-> A * (B ** (-1)) computes the division of the matrix A by B.

• Returns a new matrix!
• Performs true division!
• Time and memory complexity is $$\mathcal{O}(n m p \max(m, p)^2)$$ for a matrix A of size (n, m) and B of size (m, p).
• If B is a number, the division is done coefficient wise.
>>> A = Matrix([[1, 2], [3, 4]])
>>> B = eye(A.n)
>>> B.almosteq(A / A)
True
>>> C = B.map(float)
>>> A / C == A * C == A
True
>>> A / B == A * B == A
True
>>> A / 2  # Coefficient wise!
[[0.5, 1.0], [1.5, 2.0]]
>>> A / 2.0  # Coefficient wise!
[[0.5, 1.0], [1.5, 2.0]]

__floordiv__(B)[source]

A // B <-> A * (B ** (-1)) computes the division of the matrix A by B.

• Returns a new matrix!
• Time and memory complexity is $$\mathcal{O}(n m p)$$ for a matrix A of size (n, m) and B of size (m, p).
• If B is a number, the division is done coefficient wise with an integer division //.
>>> A = Matrix([[1, 2], [3, 4]])
>>> B = eye(A.n); C = B.map(float)
>>> A // C == A * C == A
True
>>> A // B == A * B == A
True
>>> A // 2  # Coefficient wise!
[[0, 1], [1, 2]]
>>> A // 2.0  # Coefficient wise!
[[0.0, 1.0], [1.0, 2.0]]

__mod__(b)[source]

A % b <-> A.__mod__(b) computes the modulus coefficient-wise of the matrix A by b.

• Returns a new matrix!
• Time and memory complexity is $$\mathcal{O}(n m)$$ for a matrix A of size (n, m).
>>> A = Matrix([[1, 2], [3, 4]])
>>> A % 2
[[1, 0], [1, 0]]
>>> (A*100) % 31
[[7, 14], [21, 28]]
>>> (A*100) % 33 == A  # Curious property
True
>>> (A*100) % 35
[[30, 25], [20, 15]]


Warning

A % B for two matrices means the coefficient-wise modulus.

>>> A = Matrix([[1, 2], [3, 4]])
>>> B = Matrix([[2, 3], [2, 2]])
>>> A % B
[[1, 2], [1, 0]]

__rdiv__(B)[source]

B / A <-> A.__rdiv__(B) computes the division of B by A.

Warning

If B is 1 (B == 1), 1 / A is A.inv() (special case!)

• If B is a number, the division is done coefficient wise.
• Returns a new matrix!
• Time and memory complexity is $$\mathcal{O}(n m p)$$ for a matrix A of size (n, m) and B of size (m, p).
>>> A = Matrix([[1, 2], [3, 4]])
>>> Ainv = Matrix([[-2.0, 1.0], [1.5, -0.5]])
>>> B = eye(A.n)
>>> B == A * Ainv == Ainv * A
True
>>> 1 / B == B == B / 1
True
>>> C = B.map(float)
>>> 1 / B == B == B / 1
True
>>> A.inv() == 1 / A  # special case!
True
>>> 1 / A  # This is like 1 / A
[[-2.0, 1.0], [1.5, -0.5]]
>>> 2 / (2*A)  # Warning This is coefficient wise !
[[1.0, 0.5], [0.333333..., 0.25]]

__rtruediv__(B)

B / A <-> A.__rdiv__(B) computes the division of B by A.

Warning

If B is 1 (B == 1), 1 / A is A.inv() (special case!)

• If B is a number, the division is done coefficient wise.
• Returns a new matrix!
• Time and memory complexity is $$\mathcal{O}(n m p)$$ for a matrix A of size (n, m) and B of size (m, p).
>>> A = Matrix([[1, 2], [3, 4]])
>>> Ainv = Matrix([[-2.0, 1.0], [1.5, -0.5]])
>>> B = eye(A.n)
>>> B == A * Ainv == Ainv * A
True
>>> 1 / B == B == B / 1
True
>>> C = B.map(float)
>>> 1 / B == B == B / 1
True
>>> A.inv() == 1 / A  # special case!
True
>>> 1 / A  # This is like 1 / A
[[-2.0, 1.0], [1.5, -0.5]]
>>> 2 / (2*A)  # Warning This is coefficient wise !
[[1.0, 0.5], [0.333333..., 0.25]]

__rfloordiv__(B)[source]

B // A <-> A.__rdiv__(B) computes the division of B by A.

Warning

If B is 1 (B == 1), 1 / A is A.inv() (special case!)

• If B is a number, the division is done coefficient wise.
• Returns a new matrix!
• Time and memory complexity is $$\mathcal{O}(n m p)$$ for a matrix A of size (n, m) and B of size (m, p).
>>> A = Matrix([[1, 2], [3, 4]])
>>> B = eye(A.n)
>>> 1 // B == B == B // 1
True
>>> C = B.map(float)
>>> 1 // B == B == B // 1
True
>>> A.inv() == 1 // A  # special case!
True
>>> 2 // (2*A)  # XXX This is coefficient wise !
[[1, 0], [0, 0]]

__pow__(k)[source]

A ** k <-> A.__pow__(k) to compute the product of the square matrix A (with the quick exponentation trick).

• Returns a new matrix!
• k has to be an integer (ValueError will be returned otherwise).
• Time complexity is $$\mathcal{O}(n^3 \log(k))$$ for a matrix A of size (n, n).
• Memory complexity is $$\mathcal{O}(n^2)$$.
• It uses A.inv() (inv()) to (try to) compute the inverse if k < 0.
• More details are in the solution for the Problem II of the 2nd Mid-Term Exam for CS101.
>>> A = Matrix([[1, 2], [3, 4]])
>>> A ** 1 == A
True
>>> A ** 2
[[7, 10], [15, 22]]
>>> A * A == A ** 2
True
>>> B = eye(A.n)
>>> B == B ** 1 == A ** 0 == B ** 0
True
>>> divmod(2015, 2)
(1007, 1)
>>> 2015 == 1007*2 + 1
True
>>> A ** 2015 == ((A ** 1007) ** 2 ) * A
True
>>> C = diag([1, 4])
>>> C ** 100
[[1, 0], [0, 1606938044258990275541962092341162602522202993782792835301376]]
>>> C ** 100 == diag([1**100, 4**100])
True


It also accept negative integers:

>>> A ** (-1) == A.inv()
True
>>> C = (A ** (-1)); C
[[-2.0, 1.0], [1.5, -0.5]]
>>> C * A == eye(A.n) == A * C
True
>>> C.listrows  # Rounding mistakes can happen (but not here)
[[-2.0, 1.0], [1.5, -0.5]]
>>> D = C.round(); D.listrows
[[-2.0, 1.0], [1.5, -0.5]]
>>> D * A == eye(A.n) == A * D  # No rounding mistake!
True
>>> (C * A).almosteq(eye(A.n))
True
>>> (A ** (-5)) == (A ** 5).inv() == (A.inv()) ** 5
False
>>> (A ** (-5)).round() == ((A ** 5).inv()).round() == ((A.inv()) ** 5).round()  # No rounding mistake!
True

exp(limit=30)[source]

A.exp() computes a numerical approximation of the exponential of the square matrix A.

• Raise a ValueError exception if A is not square.
• Note: $$\exp(A) = \mathrm{e}^A$$ is defined as the series $$\sum\limits_{k=0}^{+\infty} \frac{A^k}{k!}$$.
• We only compute the first limit terms of this series, hopping that the partial sum will be close to the entire series.
• Default value for limit is 30 (it should be enough for any matrix).
>>> import math
>>> e = math.e
>>> I = eye(10); I[0, :]
[[1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0]]
>>> I * e == I.exp() == diag([e] * I.n)  # Rounding mistakes!
False
>>> (I * e).round() == I.exp().round() == diag([e] * I.n).round()  # No more rounding mistakes!
True
>>> C = diag([1, 4])
>>> C.exp() == diag([e ** 1, e ** 4]) == diag([math.exp(1), math.exp(4)])  # Rounding mistakes!
False
>>> C.exp().almosteq(diag([e ** 1, e ** 4]))  # No more rounding mistakes!
True
>>> diag([e ** 1, e ** 4]).almosteq(diag([math.exp(1), math.exp(4)]))
True

inv()[source]

A.inv() computes the inverse of the square matrix A (if possible), with the Gauss-Jordan algorithm.

• Raise a ValueError exception if A is not square.
• Raise a ValueError exception if A is singular.
>>> A = Matrix([[1, 2], [3, 4]])
>>> A.inv()
[[-2.0, 1.0], [1.5, -0.5]]
>>> A * A.inv() == A.inv() * A == eye(A.n)  # Rounding mistake can happen (but not here)
True
>>> Ai = A.inv().round()  # No more rounding mistake!
>>> A * Ai == Ai * A == eye(A.n)
True
>>> A.det
-2
>>> O = Matrix([[1, 2], [0, 0]])  # O and not 0
>>> O.is_singular
True
>>> O.inv()  # O is singular!
Traceback (most recent call last):
...
ValueError: A.inv() on a singular matrix (ie. non inversible).
>>> O.det
0

gauss(det=False, verb=False, mode=None, maxpivot=False)[source]

A.gauss() implements the Gauss elimination process on matrix A.

When possible, the Gauss elimination process produces a row echelon form by applying linear operations to A.

• If maxpivot is True, we look for the pivot with higher absolute value (can help reducing rounding mistakes).
• If verb is True, some details are printed at each steps of the algorithm.
• mode can be None (default), or 'f' for fractions (Fraction) or 'd' for decimal numbers (Decimal).
• Reference is https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaussian_elimination#Definitions_and_example_of_algorithm
• We chosed to apply rows operations only: it uses elementary operations on lines/rows: $$L_i' \longrightarrow L_i - \gamma \times L_k$$ (method swap_rows()).
• Can swap two columns in order to select the bigger pivot (increases the numerical stability).
• The function will raise a ValueError if the matrix A is singular (ie. Gauss process cannot conclude).
• If det is True, the returned value is c, d with c the row echelon form, and d the determinant. Reference for this part is this wikipedia page.
>>> Matrix([[1, 2], [3, 4]]).gauss()
[[1, 2], [0, -2]]
>>> Matrix([[1, 2], [1, 2]]).gauss()
[[1, 2], [0, 0]]
>>> Matrix([[1, 2], [-1, -0.5]]).gauss()
[[1, 2], [0, 1.5]]
>>> Matrix([[1, 2], [3, 4]]).gauss(maxpivot=True)
[[2, 1], [0, 1]]
>>> Matrix([[1, 2], [1, 2]]).gauss(maxpivot=True)
[[2, 1], [0, 0]]
>>> Matrix([[1, 2], [3, 4]]).gauss(det=True)
([[1, 2], [0, -2]], -2)
>>> Matrix([[1, 2], [1, 2]]).gauss(det=True)
([[1, 2], [0, 0]], 0)

gauss_jordan(inv=False, verb=False, mode=None, maxpivot=False)[source]

A.gauss_jordan() implements the Gauss elimination process on matrix A.

• If inv is True, the returned value is J_n, A**(-1) with J_n the reduced row echelon form of A, and A**(-1) the computed inverse of A.
• If maxpivot is True, we look for the pivot with higher absolute value (can help reducing rounding mistakes).
rank

A.rank uses the Gauss elimination process to compute the rank of the matrix A, by simply counting the number of non-zero elements on the diagonal of the echelon form.

Todo

The Gauss process (gauss()) has to be changed, and improved for singular matrices (when the rank is not maximum!).

>>> Matrix([[1, 2], [3, 4]]).rank
2
>>> Matrix([[1, 2], [1, 2]]).rank
1
>>> zeros(7).rank
0
>>> eye(19).rank
19

det

A.det uses the Gauss elimination process to compute the determinant of the matrix A.

Note

Because it depends of the number of elementary operations performed in the Gauss method, we had to modify the gauss() method...

>>> Matrix([[1, 2], [3, 4]]).det
-2
>>> Matrix([[1, 2], [1, 2]]).det
0
>>> zeros(7).det
0
>>> eye(19).det
1

count(value)[source]

A.count(value) counts how many times the element value is in the matrix A.

>>> Matrix([[1, 2], [3, 4]]).count(2)
1
>>> Matrix([[1, 2], [1, 2]]).count(2)
2
>>> zeros(7).count(2)
0
>>> zeros(7).count(0)
49
>>> eye(19).count(1)
19
>>> eye(19).count(0)
342

__contains__(value)[source]

value in A <-> A.__contains__(value) tells if the element value is present in the matrix A.

>>> 4 in Matrix([[1, 2], [3, 4]])
True
>>> 4 in Matrix([[1, 2], [1, 2]])
False
>>> O, I = zeros(7), eye(7)
>>> 3 * I**2 + 2 * I + O ** 0
[[6, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0], [0, 6, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 6, 0, 0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0, 6, 0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0, 0, 6, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 6, 0], [0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 6]]
>>> 6 in (3 * I**2 + 2 * I + O ** 0)
True

map(f, *args, **kwargs)[source]

Apply the function f to each of the coefficient of the matrix A (returns a new matrix).

>>> O, I = zeros(2), eye(2)
>>> I.map(lambda x: x * 4)
[[4, 0], [0, 4]]
>>> O.map(lambda x: x + 6)
[[6, 6], [6, 6]]
>>> A = Matrix([[-1j, -2j], [-2j, -1j]])
>>> A.map(lambda z: abs(z))
[[1.0, 2.0], [2.0, 1.0]]
>>> A.map(lambda z: int(abs(z)))
[[1, 2], [2, 1]]
>>> A.map(lambda z: z + 1j)
[[0j, -1j], [-1j, 0j]]
>>> A.map(lambda z: '"%s"' % str(z))
[["-1j", "-2j"], ["-2j", "-1j"]]
>>> A.map(lambda z: "Look: %s" % str(z))
[[Look: -1j, Look: -2j], [Look: -2j, Look: -1j]]

• If f needs arguments or key-words arguments, use the *args and **kwargs :
>>> def f(x, n, offset=0):
...     return (x ** n) + offset
>>> A = Matrix([[1, 2], [2, 1]])
>>> A.map(f, 2)
[[1, 4], [4, 1]]
>>> A.map(f, 2, offset=4)
[[5, 8], [8, 5]]

round(ndigits=8)[source]

A.round([ndigits=8]) <-> rounds every coefficient of A to ndigits digits after the comma.

>>> A = (1. / 3.) * eye(2) + 4
>>> A.round(0)
[[4.0, 4.0], [4.0, 4.0]]
>>> A.round(2)
[[4.33, 4.0], [4.0, 4.33]]
>>> A.round(7)
[[4.3333333, 4.0], [4.0, 4.3333333]]

__iter__()[source]

iter(A) <-> A.__iter__() is used to create an iterator from the matrix A.

• The values are looped rows by rows, then columns then columns.
• This method is called when an iterator is required for a container. This method should return a new iterator object that can iterate over all the objects in the container.
>>> A = Matrix([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6], [7, 8, 9]])
>>> list(A)
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]

__next__()[source]

For Python 3 compatibility.

next()[source]

Generator for iterating the matrix A.

• The values are looped rows by rows, then columns then columns.
>>> A = Matrix([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6], [7, 8, 9]])
>>> for x in A:
...     print(x)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
>>> for i, x in enumerate(A):
...     print(i, "th value of A is", x)
0 th value of A is 1
1 th value of A is 2
2 th value of A is 3
3 th value of A is 4
4 th value of A is 5
5 th value of A is 6
6 th value of A is 7
7 th value of A is 8
8 th value of A is 9

real

Real part of the matrix A, coefficient wise.

>>> A = Matrix([[1j, 2j], [2j, 1j]])
>>> A.real
[[0.0, 0.0], [0.0, 0.0]]
>>> A = Matrix([[1+6j, 2], [-1+2j, 1+9j]])
>>> A.real
[[1.0, 2], [-1.0, 1.0]]

imag

Imaginary part of the matrix A, coefficient wise.

>>> A = Matrix([[-1j, -2j], [-2j, -1j]])
>>> A.imag
[[-1.0, -2.0], [-2.0, -1.0]]

conjugate()[source]

Conjugate part of the matrix A, coefficient wise.

>>> A = Matrix([[-1j, -2j], [-2j, -1j]])
>>> A.conjugate()
[[1j, 2j], [2j, 1j]]

dot(v)[source]

A.dot(v) computes the dot multiplication of the matrix A and the vector v ($$A \dot v$$).

• v can be a matrix (Matrix) of size (m, 1), or a list of size m.
>>> A = Matrix([[1, 1], [1, -1]])
>>> v = [2, 3]
>>> A.dot(v)
[[5], [-1]]
>>> v = Matrix([[2], [-3]])
>>> A.dot(v)
[[-1], [5]]


Warning

An exception ValueError is raised if the sizes does not allow the dot product:

>>> A.dot(v.T)  # v.T is not a column vector!
Traceback (most recent call last):
...
ValueError: A.dot(v): the vector v = [[2, -3]] is not a vector: v.m = 2 != 1.
>>> v = Matrix([[2], [-3], [7]])
>>> A.dot(v)
Traceback (most recent call last):
...
ValueError: A.dot(v): the size of the vector v = [[2], [-3], [7]] should be compatible with the size of the matrix self = [[1, 1], [1, -1]]. Here self.m = 2 and v.n = 3, are different.
>>> v = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
>>> A.dot(v)
Traceback (most recent call last):
...
ValueError: A.dot(v): the size of the vector v = [[1], [2], [3], [4], [5]] should be compatible with the size of the matrix self = [[1, 1], [1, -1]]. Here self.m = 2 and v.n = 5, are different.

norm(p=2)[source]

A.norm(p) computes the p-norm of the matrix A, default is p = 2.

• Mathematically defined as p-root of the sum of the p-power of modulus of its coefficients :
$\|A\|_{p} := \left( \sum\limits_{1 \leq i \leq n, 1 \leq j \leq m} {|A_{i,j}|}^p \right)^{\frac{1}{p}}$
• If p = 'inf', the max norm is returned (ie. infinity norm), defined by $$\|A\|_{\infty} := \max_{i,j} |A_{i,j}|$$.
• Reference is Matrix norm (on Wikipedia).
>>> A = Matrix([[1, 2], [-3, -1]])
>>> A.norm()  # (1)**2 + (2)**2 + (-3)**2 + (-1)**2
3.872983346207417
>>> 15**0.5
3.872983346207417
>>> A.norm('inf')
3
>>> A.norm(1) == 7  # (1) + (2) + (3) + (1)
True
>>> A.norm(3)
3.332221851645953

normalized(fnorm=None, *args, **kwargs)[source]

A.normalized() return a new matrix, which columns vectors are normalized by using the norm 2 (or the given function fnorm).

• Will not fail if a vector has norm 0 (it is just not modified).
• Reference is Orthogonalization (on Wikipedia).
• Any extra arguments args, kwargs are given to the function fnorm.
>>> A = Matrix([[1, 2], [-3, -1]])
>>> A.normalized(p='inf')
[[0.333333..., 1.0], [-1.0, -0.5]]
>>> eye(5).normalized(p='inf').map(int)  # normalize then round to an int
[[1, 0, 0, 0, 0], [0, 1, 0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 1, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0, 1, 0], [0, 0, 0, 0, 1]]
>>> B = -eye(5)
>>> (2*B).normalized()  # each vector is divided by its norm = 2
[[-1.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0], [0.0, -1.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0], [0.0, 0.0, -1.0, 0.0, 0.0], [0.0, 0.0, 0.0, -1.0, 0.0], [0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, -1.0]]
>>> B.normalized(p='inf')
[[-1.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0], [0.0, -1.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0], [0.0, 0.0, -1.0, 0.0, 0.0], [0.0, 0.0, 0.0, -1.0, 0.0], [0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, -1.0]]


It works also for a simple vector:

>>> v = Matrix([[1], [-2], [3]])
>>> v.normalized()
[[0.267261...], [-0.534522...], [0.801783...]]
>>> v.normalized(p=2)
[[0.267261...], [-0.534522...], [0.801783...]]
>>> v.normalized() * (14**0.5)
[[1.0], [-2.0], [3.0]]
>>> v.normalized(p=1)
[[0.166666...], [-0.333333...], [0.5]]
>>> v.normalized(p=1) * 6
[[1.0], [-2.0], [3.0]]
>>> 6 * v.normalized(p=1)
[[1.0], [-2.0], [3.0]]

__abs__()[source]

abs(A) <-> A.abs() <-> A.__abs__() computes the absolute value / modulus of A coefficient-wise.

>>> A = Matrix([[-4, 2+2j], [0, 4j]])
>>> abs(A)
[[4, 2.828427...], [0, 4.0]]
>>> B = -eye(2)
>>> B.abs()
[[1, 0], [0, 1]]

abs()

abs(A) <-> A.abs() <-> A.__abs__() computes the absolute value / modulus of A coefficient-wise.

>>> A = Matrix([[-4, 2+2j], [0, 4j]])
>>> abs(A)
[[4, 2.828427...], [0, 4.0]]
>>> B = -eye(2)
>>> B.abs()
[[1, 0], [0, 1]]

trace()[source]

A.trace() computes the trace of A :

$\mathrm{Tr}(A) := \sum\limits_{1 \leq i \leq \min(n, m)} A_{i, i}$
>>> A = Matrix([[-4, 2+2j], [0, 4j]])
>>> A.trace()
(-4+4j)
>>> eye(19).trace()
19
>>> zeros(20).trace()
0
>>> ones(100).trace()
100

is_square

A.is_square tests if A is square or not.

>>> A = Matrix([[-4, 2+2j], [0, 4j]])
>>> A.is_square
True
>>> v = Matrix([[-4], [0]])
>>> v.is_square
False

is_symetric

A.is_symetric tests if A is symetric or not.

>>> A = Matrix([[-4, 2+2j], [0, 4j]])
>>> A.is_symetric
False
>>> eye(30).is_symetric
True

is_anti_symetric

A.is_anti_symetric tests if A is anti-symetric or not.

>>> A = Matrix([[0, 1], [-1, 0]])
>>> A.is_anti_symetric
True
>>> eye(30).is_anti_symetric
False

is_diagonal

A.is_diagonal tests if A is diagonal or not.

>>> eye(40).is_diagonal
True
>>> A = Matrix([[0, 1], [-1, 0]])
>>> A.is_diagonal
False
>>> A = diag(range(30))
>>> A.is_diagonal
True

is_hermitian

A.is_hermitian tests if A is Hermitian or not (tests if $$A^{*} = A$$, ie. conjugate(A.T) == A)).

>>> A = Matrix([[1, 2j], [-2j, 1]])
>>> A.is_hermitian
True
>>> eye(30).is_hermitian
True
>>> (1j * ones(3)).is_hermitian
False

is_lower

A.is_lower tests if A is lower triangular or not.

>>> A = Matrix([[8, 1], [0, 7]])
>>> A.is_lower
False
>>> A.T.is_lower
True

is_upper

A.is_upper tests if A is upper triangular or not.

>>> A = Matrix([[2, 0], [3, 4]])
>>> A.is_upper
False
>>> A.T.is_upper
True

is_zero

A.is_zero tests if A is the zero matrix or not.

>>> A = Matrix([[2, 0], [3, 4]])
>>> A.is_zero
False
>>> zeros(30).is_zero
True
>>> (0 * A).is_zero
True

is_singular

A.is_singular tests if A is singular (ie. non-invertible) or not.

Note

It computes the determinant by using the Gauss elimination process (det()).

>>> A = Matrix([[2, 0], [3, 4]])
>>> A.is_singular
False
>>> zeros(3).is_singular
True
>>> (0 * A).is_singular
True
>>> Matrix([[2, 0], [4, 0]]).is_singular
True

swap_cols(j1, j2)[source]

A.swap_cols(j1, j2) changes in place the j1-th and j2-th columns of the matrix A.

>>> A = Matrix([[2, 0], [3, 4]]); A
[[2, 0], [3, 4]]
>>> A.swap_cols(0, 1); A
[[0, 2], [4, 3]]

swap_rows(i1, i2)[source]

A.swap_rows(i1, i2) changes in place the i1-th and i2-th rows of the matrix A.

>>> A = Matrix([[2, 0], [3, 4]]); A
[[2, 0], [3, 4]]
>>> A.swap_rows(0, 1); A
[[3, 4], [2, 0]]

minor(i, j)[source]

A.minor(i, j) <-> minor(A, i, j) returns the (i, j) minor of A, defined as the determinant of the submatrix A[i0, j0] for i0 != i and j0 != j.

• Complexities: memory is $$\mathcal{O}(n^2)$$, time is $$\mathcal{O}(n^3)$$ (1 determinant of size n - 1).
>>> A = Matrix([[1, 2], [3, 4]])
>>> A.minor(0, 0)
4
>>> A = Matrix([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6], [7, 8, 9]])
>>> A.minor(0, 0)  # | 5 6  8 9 | = 5 * 9 - 6 * 8 = -3
-3.000000000000007
>>> A.minor(1, 0)  # | 2 3  8 9 | = 2 * 9 - 3 * 8 = -6
-6

cofactor(i, j)[source]

A.cofactor(i, j) <-> cofactor(A, i, j) returns the (i, j) cofactor of A, defined as the (-1)**(i + j) times to (i, j) minor of A (cf. minor()).

• Complexities: memory is $$\mathcal{O}(n^2)$$, time is $$\mathcal{O}(n^3)$$ (1 determinant of size n - 1).
>>> A = Matrix([[1, 2], [3, 4]])
>>> A.cofactor(0, 0)
4
>>> A = Matrix([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6], [7, 8, 9]])
>>> A.cofactor(0, 0)  # (-1)**0 * | 5 6  8 9 | = 5 * 9 - 6 * 8 = -3
-3.000000000000007
>>> A.cofactor(1, 0)  # (-1)**1 * | 2 3  8 9 | = -(2 * 9 - 3 * 8) = 6
6

adjugate()[source]

A.adjugate() <-> adjugate(A) returns the adjugate matrix of A.

• Complexities: memory is $$\mathcal{O}(n^2)$$, time is $$\mathcal{O}(n^5)$$ ($$n^2$$ determinants of size n - 1).
• Using the adjugate matrix for computing the inverse is a BAD method : too time-consuming ! LU or Gauss-elimination is only $$\mathcal{O}(n^3)$$.
>>> A = Matrix([[2, 0], [3, 4]])
[[4, -3], [0, 2]]
>>> A * A.adjugate() == A.det * eye(A.n)
False
>>> A * A.adjugate().T == A.det * eye(A.n)
True

type()[source]

A.type() returns the matrix of types of coefficients of A.

__weakref__

list of weak references to the object (if defined)

matrix.ones(n, m=None)[source]

ones(n, m) is a matrix of size (n, m) filled with 1.

>>> ones(3, 2)
[[1, 1], [1, 1], [1, 1]]
>>> ones(2, 3)
[[1, 1, 1], [1, 1, 1]]

• It works with only one dimension, or with a tuple (n, m) :
>>> ones(2)
[[1, 1], [1, 1]]
>>> ones((2, 3))
[[1, 1, 1], [1, 1, 1]]

matrix.zeros(n, m=None)[source]

zeros(n, m) is a matrix of size (n, m) filled with 0.

>>> zeros(3, 2)
[[0, 0], [0, 0], [0, 0]]
>>> zeros(2, 3)
[[0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0]]
>>> ones(2, 3) == zeros(2, 3) + 1
True
>>> zeros(2, 3) == ones(2, 3) * 0
True

• It works with only one dimension, or with a tuple (n, m) :
>>> zeros(2)
[[0, 0], [0, 0]]
>>> zeros((2, 3))
[[0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0]]

matrix.eye(n)[source]

eye(n) is the (square) identity matrix of size (n, n) (1 on the diagonal, 0 outside).

>>> eye(2)
[[1, 0], [0, 1]]
>>> zeros(18) == eye(18) * 0
True
>>> eye(60).is_diagonal
True
>>> eye(40).is_square
True
>>> eye(20).is_singular
False
>>> eye(5).det
1
>>> eye(7).trace()
7

matrix.diag(d, n=None)[source]

diag(d) creates a matrix from a list d (or iterator) of diagonal values, or with n-times the value d if d is not an iterator and n is an integer.

>>> D = diag(range(1,6))
>>> D[2, :]
[[0, 0, 3, 0, 0]]


We can check the usual properties of diagonal matrices:

>>> D.trace()
15
>>> D.trace() == sum(range(1,6))
True
>>> D.det
120
>>> from math import factorial
>>> D.det == factorial(5)
True


Other examples:

>>> diag([-1, 1])
[[-1, 0], [0, 1]]
>>> diag([-4, 1]) + 3
[[-1, 3], [3, 4]]


We can also use the optional argument n:

>>> diag(3.14, 3)
[[3.14, 0, 0], [0, 3.14, 0], [0, 0, 3.14]]
>>> diag([3.14]*3)  # Same !
[[3.14, 0, 0], [0, 3.14, 0], [0, 0, 3.14]]

matrix.mat_from_f(f, n, m=None, *args, **kwargs)[source]

mat_from_f(f, n, m=None) creates a matrix of size (n, m) initialized with the function f : A[i, j] = f(i, j).

• Default value for m is n (square matrix).

Warning

f has to accept (at least) two arguments i, j.

>>> mat_from_f(lambda i, j: 1 if i == j else 0, 3) == eye(3)
True
>>> mat_from_f(lambda i, j: 1, 3) == ones(3)
True
>>> mat_from_f(lambda i, j: i+j, 3)
[[0, 1, 2], [1, 2, 3], [2, 3, 4]]
>>> mat_from_f(lambda i, j: i*j, 3)
[[0, 0, 0], [0, 1, 2], [0, 2, 4]]

• Any extra arguments args, kwargs are given to the function f.
>>> def f(i, j, e, offset=0):
...     return (i * e) + offset
>>> mat_from_f(f, 2, 2, 4)  # n = 2, m = 2, e = 4
[[0, 0], [4, 4]]
>>> mat_from_f(f, 2, 2, 4, offset=10)  # n = 2, m = 2, e = 4, offset = 10
[[10, 10], [14, 14]]

• Remark: it is similar to Array.make (or Array.init) in OCaml (v3.12+) or String.create (or String.make).
matrix.det(A)[source]

det(A) <-> A.det computes the determinant of A (in $$\mathcal{O}(n^3)$$).

>>> det(eye(2))
1
>>> det((-1) * eye(4))
1
>>> det((-1) * eye(5))
-1

matrix.rank(A)[source]

rank(A) <-> A.rank computes the rank of A (in $$\mathcal{O}(n^3)$$).

>>> rank(eye(2))
2

matrix.gauss(A, *args, **kwargs)[source]

gauss(A) <-> A.gauss() applies the Gauss elimination process on A (in $$\mathcal{O}(n^3)$$).

matrix.gauss_jordan(A, *args, **kwargs)[source]

gauss_jordan(A) <-> A.gauss_jordan() applies the Gauss-Jordan elimination process on A (in $$\mathcal{O}(n^3)$$).

matrix.inv(A)[source]

inv(A) <-> A.inv() tries to compute the inverse of A (in $$\mathcal{O}(n^3)$$).

>>> inv(eye(2)) == eye(2)
True

matrix.exp(A, *args, **kwargs)[source]

exp(A) <-> A.exp() computes an approximation of the exponential of A (in $$\mathcal{O}(n^3 * limit)$$).

>>> import math
>>> e = math.exp(1.0)
>>> C = diag([1, 4])
>>> exp(C) == diag([e ** 1, e ** 4]) == diag([math.exp(1), math.exp(4)])  # Rounding mistakes!
False
>>> exp(C).almosteq(diag([e ** 1, e ** 4]))  # No more rounding mistakes!
True
>>> diag([e ** 1, e ** 4]).almosteq(diag([math.exp(1), math.exp(4)]))
True

matrix.PLUdecomposition(A, mode=None)[source]

PLUdecomposition(A) computes the permuted LU decomposition for the matrix A.

• Operates in time complexity of $$\mathcal{O}(n^3)$$, memory of $$\mathcal{O}(n^2)$$.
• mode can be None (default), or 'f' for fractions (Fractions) or 'd' for decimal (Decimal) numbers.
• Returned P, L, U that satisfies P*A = L*U, with P being a permutation matrix, L a lower triangular matrix, U an upper triangular matrix.
• Will raise a ValueError exception if A is singular.
• Reference is Gauss elimination (on Wikipedia).
• We chosed to apply rows operations only: it uses elementary operations on lines/rows: $$L_i' \longrightarrow L_i - \gamma \times L_k$$ (method swap_rows).
• Can swap two columns in order to select the bigger pivot (increases the numerical stability).
matrix.norm(A, p=2, *args, **kwargs)[source]

norm(A, p) <-> A.norm(p) computes the p-norm of A (default is p = 2).

matrix.trace(A, *args, **kwargs)[source]

trace(A) <-> A.trace() computes the trace of A.

matrix.rand_matrix(n=1, m=1, k=10)[source]

rand_matrix(n, m, k) generates a new random matrix of size (n, m) with each coefficients being integers, randomly taken between -k and k (bound included).

>>> from random import seed
>>> seed(0)  # We want the examples to always be the same
>>> rand_matrix(2, 3)
[[7, 5, -2], [-5, 0, -2]]
>>> rand_matrix(3, 2, 40)
[[23, -16], [-2, 7], [33, 0]]
>>> rand_matrix(4, 4, 100)
[[-44, 51, 24, -50], [82, 97, 62, 81], [-38, 46, 80, 37], [-6, -80, -13, 22]]

matrix.rand_matrix_float(n=1, m=1, k=10)[source]

rand_matrix_float(n, m, k) generates a new random matrix of size (n, m) with each coefficients being float numbers, randomly taken between -k and k (right bound excluded).

>>> from random import seed
>>> seed(0)  # We want the examples to always be the same
>>> rand_matrix_float(2, 3)
[[6.8884370305, 5.15908805881, -1.58856838338], [-4.82166499414, 0.225494427372, -1.90131725099]]
>>> rand_matrix_float(3, 2, 1)
[[0.56759717807, -0.393374547842], [-0.0468060916953, 0.16676407891], [0.816225770391, 0.00937371163478]]
>>> rand_matrix_float(4, 4, 20)
[[-8.72648622401, 10.2321681663, 4.73475986701, -9.9797463455], [16.3898502387, 19.3114190415, 12.4086894399, 16.0866380176], [-7.59409722723, 9.19326993041, 15.9535315187, 7.35935727662], [-1.11429138189, -15.9719516773, -2.63312658185, 4.43547893775]]

matrix._argmax(indexes, array)[source]

Compute the index i in indexes such that the array[i] is the bigger.

matrix._prod(iterator)[source]

Compute the product of the values in the iterator iterator. Empty product is 1.

matrix._ifnone(a, b)[source]

b if (a is None), else a.

• Useful for converting a slice object to a range object (slice, range).
matrix._slice_to_range(sliceobject)[source]

Get a range of indeces from a slice object (slice, range).

matrix.innerproduct(vx, vy)[source]

(Hermitian) dot product of the two vectors vx and vy (sum of conjugate(vx[i]) * vy[i]) :

$\mathbf{x} . \mathbf{y} = \langle \mathbf{x}, \mathbf{y} \rangle := \sum_{1 \leq i \leq n} \overline{x_i} \times y_i.$
>>> vx = [1, 2, 3]; vy = [-1, 0, 4]
>>> innerproduct(vx, vy)
11


Warning

The conjugate is on the first vector, as always for Hermite spaces and Hermitian inner product.

>>> vx = [1j, 2j, 3j]; vy = [-1, 0, 4]
>>> (-1j) * (-1) + (-2j) * (0) + (-3j) * (4)
-11j
>>> innerproduct(vx, vy)
-11j

matrix.norm_square(u)[source]

Shortcut for the square of the norm of the vector u:

$\| u \|^2 := \langle u, u \rangle.$
>>> u = [1, 2, 3]
>>> norm_square(u)
14

• It works for imaginary valued vectors:
>>> u = [1j, -2j, 3j]
>>> norm_square(u)
14.0

• And it also works for complex valued vectors:
>>> u = [1+1j, 2-2j, 3+3j]
>>> norm_square(u)
28.0

matrix.norm2(u)[source]

Shortcut for the canonical norm of the vector u:

>>> u = [1, 2, 3]
>>> norm2(u)
3.7416573867739413

• It works for imaginary valued vectors:
>>> u = [1j, -2j, 3j]
>>> norm2(u)
3.7416573867739413

• And it also works for complex valued vectors:
>>> u = [1+1j, 2-2j, 3+3j]
>>> norm2(u)
5.291502622129181

matrix.vect_const_multi(vx, c)[source]

Multiply the vector vx by the constant c (scalar, ie. real or complex).

>>> vx = [1, 2, 3]; vy = [-1, 0, 4]
>>> vect_const_multi(vx, 2)
[2, 4, 6]
>>> vect_const_multi(vy, -4)
[4, 0, -16]

matrix.proj(u, v)[source]

Projection of the vector v into the vector u ($$\mathrm{proj}_u(v)$$ as written on Wikipedia).

>>> u = [1, 2, 3]; v = [-1, 0, 4]
>>> proj(u, v)  # 11/14 * u
[0.7857142857142857, 1.5714285714285714, 2.357142857142857]
>>> proj(u, v) == [(11/14) * x for x in u]
True

matrix.gram_schmidt(V, normalized=False)[source]

Basic implementation of the Gram-Schmidt process for the column vectors of the matrix V, in the easy case of $$\mathbb{R}^n$$ with the usual dot product.

• The matrix is interpreted as a family of column vectors.
• Reference for notations, concept and proof is Gram-Schmidt process (on Wikipedia).
• If normalized is True, the vectors are normalized before being returned.
>>> V = Matrix([[1, 2, 3], [-1, 0, 4]])
>>> gram_schmidt(V)
[[1, 2, 3], [-1, 0, 4]]

matrix.minor(A, i, j)[source]

minor(A, i, j) <-> A.minor(i, j) returns the (i, j) minor of A, defined as the determinant of the submatrix A[i0,j0] for i0 != i and j0 != j.

• Complexities: memory is $$\mathcal{O}(n^2)$$, time is $$\mathcal{O}(n^3)$$ (1 determinant of size n - 1).
matrix.cofactor(A, i, j)[source]

cofactor(A, i, j) <-> A.cofactor(i, j) returns the (i, j) cofactor of A, defined as the (-1)**(i + j) times to (i, j) minor of A (cf. minor()).

• Complexities: memory is $$\mathcal{O}(n^2)$$, time is $$\mathcal{O}(n^3)$$ (1 determinant of size n - 1).
matrix.adjugate(A)[source]

adjugate(A) <-> A.adjugate() returns the adjugate matrix of A.

• Reference is Adjugate matrix (on Wikipedia).
• Complexities: memory is $$\mathcal{O}(n^2)$$, time is $$\mathcal{O}(n^5)$$ (n^2 determinants of size n - 1).
• Using the adjugate matrix for computing the inverse is a BAD method : too time-consuming ! LU or Gauss-elimination is only $$\mathcal{O}(n^3)$$.